ChaldeanWiki - User contributions [en]

List of Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon

2015-04-03T15:37:37Z

92.26.16.191:

:''Patriarch of Babylon redirects here. For ''earlier'' [[Catholicos|Catholicoi]] of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], see [[List of Patriarchs of the Church of the East]]. In particular and for legal line of accession prior to 1553, see [[List of Patriarchs of the Church of the East#List of Catholicoi of Seleucia-Ctesiphon and Patriarchs of the East until 1552|List of Catholicoi of Seleucia-Ctesiphon and Patriarchs of the East until 1552]]''

This is a list of The '''Chaldean [[Catholicos]]-Patriarchs of Babylon''', the leaders of the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]] and one of the [[Patriarchs of the east]] of the [[Catholic Church]] starting from 1553 following the [[Schism of 1552]] which caused a break from the [[Assyrian Church]] and the subsequent founding of the ''Church of Assyria and Mosul'', later called the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]].

This list continues from the [[List of Patriarchs of the Church of the East]] that traces itself back from the Church founded in [[Assyria]] first mentioned in the 1st century under Simon Peter in 1 Peter 5:13 out of which grew the Church of the East. It was Catholicos Timothy I Al-Baghdadi incorporated the numerically dominant [[St. Thomas Christians]] under the Apostolic See of the Catholicos-Patriarch of Babylon, which is often wrongly attributed to St. Thomas as a result.

The term ''Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs of Babylon'' is somewhat inaccurate in a geographical and historical context, as the Church was an offshoot of the Assyrian Church, and founded by priests from [[Upper Mesopotamia]], a region which had been [[Assyria]], rather than in southern Mesopotamia where Babylonia and Chaldea had once been.

==Catholicoi and Patriarchs of Babylon for the Chaldeans==
===The Shimun line===
In 1553, Mar Yohannan Sulaqa, willing to separate from the [[List of Patriarchs of the Church of the East|Church of the East]]'s [[episcopal see|Patriarchal See]] of [[Alqosh]], an Assyrian town in the [[Assyrian homeland]] in northern Iraq, went to Rome asking for his appointment as Patriarch. He was consecrated in [[St. Peter's Basilica]] on 9 April 1553.

* 90 [[Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa]] (1553–1555) — fixed the See in [[Amid]]
* 91 [[Abdisho IV Maron]] (1555–1570) — moved the See near [[Siirt]]
* Vacant (1570–1572)
* 92 [[Yahballaha V]] (1572–1580)
* 93 [[Shimun IX Dinkha]] (1580–1600) — moved the See in [[Urmia]], was the last patriarch of the Shimun line to be formally recognized by Rome, reintroduced the hereditary succession
* 94 [[Shimun X Eliyah]] (1600–1638) — moved the See in [[Salmas]]
* 95 [[Shimun XI Eshuyow]] (1638–1656)
* 96 [[Shimun XII Yoalaha]] (1656–1662)
* 97 [[Shimun XIII Dinkha]] (1662–1692) — moved the See in [[Qochanis]], formally broke [[full communion]] with Rome in 1692, moved back to the Assyrian church, continued to be Patriarch of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] until c. 1700, the Shimun line of successors continued in the Assyrian Church of the East

===The Josephite line of Amid===
The Catholic Patriarchs based in [[Amid]], now [[Diyarbakır]] in southeastern [[Turkey]], began with Joseph I who in 1681 separated from the Assyrian Patriarchal See of Alqosh entering into full communion with Rome.

* 98 [[Joseph I (Chaldean Patriarch)|Joseph I]] (1681–1696)
* 99 [[Joseph II (Chaldean Patriarch)|Joseph II Sliba Maruf]] (1696–1713)
* 100 [[Joseph III (Chaldean Patriarch)|Joseph III Timothy Maroge]] (1713–1757)
* 101 [[Joseph IV (Chaldean Patriarch)|Joseph IV Lazare Hindi]] (1757–1780)
* 102 [[Joseph V Augustine Hindi]] (1780–1827), patriarchal administrator from 1802, apostolic delegate for the Patriarchate of Babylon from 1812, never formally recognized as patriarch by Rome.
* Vacant (1827–1830)

At the death of [[Augustine Hindi]], this See remained vacant until 1830 upon the merging of the Alqosh line in the person of [[Mar Yohannan Hormizd]] thus forming the modern [[Chaldean Catholic Church]].

===The Alqosh/Mosul line===
The patriarchal See of [[Alqosh]], also known during the 17th and 18th centuries as Eliya line, was the oldest and largest patriarchal See of the Assyrian Church of the East, the only one existing patriarchal line before the 1553 split, and traces itself back from [[Thomas (Apostle)|St. Thomas]] in the 1st century. In 1610, Mar Eliyya VIII (1591–1617), Patriarch of the See of Alqosh, entered communion with the Catholic Church. Eliyya VIII, however died in 1617, and his successor quickly repudiated the union, returning to the Assyrian church.

In 1778, with the death of Eliya XII (or XI) Denkha, the See of Alqosh divided between Mar Eliyya XIII Isho-Yab, who was not in communion with Rome, and his cousin Mar Yohannan VIII Eliyya Hormizd, who professed to be Catholic. In 1804, with the death of Eliyya Isho-Yab, Yohannan Hormizd remained the only incumbent of this ancient See. He was recognized patriarch by Rome only in 1830, after the merging of the see of Amid, thus forming the modern [[Chaldean Catholic Church]].

* 103 [[Yohannan Hormizd|Yohannan VIII Hormizd]] (1830–1838) — moved the See in [[Mosul]]
* 104 [[Nicholas I Zaya]] (1839–1846)
* 105 [[Joseph Audo|Joseph VI Audo]] (1847–1878)
* 106 [[Eliya Abulyonan|Eliya XIV Abulyonan]] (1878–1894)
* 107 [[Audishu V Khayyath]] (1894–1899) (Georges Ebed-Iesu)
* 108 Yousef Emmanuel II Thomas (1900–1946)
* 109 [[Yousef VII Ghanima]] (1946–1958) — moved the See in [[Baghdad]]
* 110 [[Paul II Cheikho]] (1958–1989)
* 111 [[Raphael I Bidawid]] (1989–2003)
** [[Shlemon Warduni]] (2003) (Locum Tenens)
* 112 [[Emmanuel III Delly]] (2003–2012) (retired on 19 December 2012)
** [[Jacques Ishaq]] (2012–2013) (Locum Tenens)
* 113 [[Louis Raphaël I Sako]] (31 January 2013–present)

==See also==
* [[Chaldean Catholic Patriarchate of Babylon]]
* [[List of Patriarchs of the Church of the East]]
*[[Assyrian Church of the East]]
*[[Assyria]]
*[[Assyrian people]]

==External links==
* [http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/baby0.htm Chaldean Patriarchate of Babylon] by GCatholic.org
* Eastern Uniate Patriarchs from World Statesmen.org [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Religious_Organizations.html#Uniate]

{{Chaldean Catholic Hierarchy}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Chaldean Catholic Patriarchs Of Babylon}}
[[Category:Church patriarchs|Babylon]]
[[Category:Chaldean Catholic Church]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholicism in Iraq]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholicism-related lists]]
[[Category:Christianity in Iraq]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholic dioceses|Chaldean Patriarchate of Babylon]]
[[Category:Iraq-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of patriarchs|Chaldean]]

Syriac language

2015-03-30T17:36:40Z

92.26.16.191:

{{About|the Classical Syriac language|contemporary "Syriac" dialects|Northeastern Neo-Aramaic|other uses|Syriac (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox language
|name=Syriac
|nativename={{lang|syr|ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ}} ''{{transl|syr|Leššānā Suryāyā}}''
|pronunciation={{IPA|/lɛʃʃɑːnɑː surjɑːjɑː/}}
|image= Syriac - Estrangelo Nisibin Calligraphy.png
|imagesize= 200px
|imagecaption= '''Leššānā Suryāyā''' in written Syriac (Esṭrangelā script)
|region= [[Upper Mesopotamia]], [[Eastern Arabia]]<ref name=east/><ref name=ara/>
|ethnicity = Assyrian/Syriac
|era= Disappeared as a vernacular language after the 14th century
|ref=<ref name=Angold391>{{Harvnb|Angold|2006|pp=391}}</ref>
|familycolor=Afro-Asiatic
|fam2=[[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
|fam3=[[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
|fam4=[[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic]]
|fam5=[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]
|fam6=[[Eastern Aramaic]]
|script=[[Syriac alphabet|Syriac abjad]]
|iso2=syc
|iso3=syc
|glotto=clas1252
|glottorefname=Classical Syriac
|notice=IPA
}}
[[File:Aramaic alphabet.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Aramaic alphabet|Syriac Aramaic alphabet]]]]
{{Special characters
| image =Shlama.svg
| alt =
| link =http://www.bethmardutho.org/meltho/
| special =Syriac text, written from right to left in a cursive style with some letters joined
| fix =Help:Multilingual_support#Syriac/Aramaic script
| characters =[[Syriac script]]
| error =unjoined Syriac letters written left-to-right instead of right-to-left or other symbols }}

'''Syriac''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ɪr|i|æ|k}} ({{lang|syc|ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ}} ''{{transl|syc|Leššānā Suryāyā}}''), also known as '''Syriac Aramaic''', is a dialect of Middle [[Aramaic]] that was once spoken across much of the [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Eastern Arabia]].<ref name=east>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bJLjAKH7-rIC&pg=PR25&dq|title=Dialect, Culture, and Society in Eastern Arabia: Glossary|work=Clive Holes|year=2001|pages=XXIV-XXVI}}</ref><ref name=ara>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=mrmJAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA185&lpg=PA185&dq|title=The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity|work=Averil Cameron|year=1993|pages=185}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=tsZdAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT253&dq|title=Tradition and Modernity in Arabic Language And Literature|work=J R Smart, J. R. Smart|year=2013}}</ref> Having first appeared as a script in 1st century AD [[Assyria]] after being spoken in [[Achaemenid Assyria]] as an unwritten language since the 5th century BC,<ref>{{cite web |title=Ancient Scripts: Syriac |url=http://www.ancientscripts.com/syriac.html}}</ref> Classical Syriac became a major literary language throughout the [[Middle East]] from the 4th to the 8th centuries AD,<ref>{{cite book|last=Beyer|first=Klaus|title=The Aramaic Language: its distribution and subdivisions|coauthors=John F. Healey (trans.)|year=1986|location=Göttingen|publisher=Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht|page=44|isbn=3-525-53573-2}}</ref> the [[classical language]] of [[Edessa]], preserved in a large body of [[Syriac literature]]. Indeed, Syriac literature comprises roughly 90% of the extant Aramaic literature.<ref>{{cite thesis|type=phd|last=Tannous|first=Jack|title=Syria Between Byzantium and Islam|publisher=Princeton University|year=2010|page=1}}</ref>

[[Old Aramaic]] was adopted by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (911-605 BC) when the former conquered the various [[Aramean]] city-kingdoms to its west, and was preferred to the original [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] of the Assyrians due to its ease of use. The [[Achaemenid Empire]] (546-330 BC) which rose after the fall of the Assyrian Empire also adopted Old Aramaic as the language of the empire and Old Aramaic remained the [[lingua franca]] of the region.

The terms ''Syrian'' and ''Syriac'' were originally 9th century BC [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] derivatives of ''Assyrian''-''Assurayu'', and meant and specifically and solely referred to Assyria and the Assyrians alone for six hundred years. However, the [[Seleucid Empire]] (323-150 BC) also applied this term for Assyria to the [[Levant]] and its largely [[Aramean]] and [[Canaanite]] inhabitants as well as Assyria proper, and from this point the term was applied without distinction to both Assyria and the Levant, the latter of which had previously been known as [[Eber Nari]] and [[Aramea]], and not ''Syria''/''Assyria''.<ref>Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again". Assyriology. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 65(4). pp. 284–287.</ref>

Between the first and fourth centuries AD, the inhabitants of these regions began to embrace [[Syriac Christianity]]. The Aramaic language at this point in history is linguistically the Middle Aramaic but since most [[Assyrian Christian]] scribes of the Christian manuscripts, who wrote in the Middle Aramaic, lived in this region of Assyria, which had latterly come to refer to both the Levant as well as the historical Assyria, this specific dialect of the Middle Aramaic has come to be known as Syriac.

From the 1st century AD Syriac became the vehicle of [[Syriac Christianity]] and culture, and was originally the liturgical language of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]], and thereafter also the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]], together with the later offshoots of the Assyrian Church; the [[Nestorian Church]], [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], [[Ancient Church of the East]], [[Saint Thomas Christian Churches]], [[Assyrian Evangelical Church]], [[Maronite Church]] and [[Assyrian Pentecostal Church]]. Syriac Christianity and language spread throughout [[Asia]] as far as the Indian [[Malabar Coast]] and Eastern [[China]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Ji|first=Jingyi|title=Encounters Between Chinese Culture and Christianity: A Hermeneutical Perspective|year=2007|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-8258-0709-2|page=41|url=http://books.google.nl/books?id=DxhyQJEUXq4C&pg=PA41}}</ref> and was the medium of communication and cultural dissemination for the later arriving [[Arabs]] and, to a lesser extent, the [[Parthian Empire]] and [[Sassanid Empire]] [[Persian people|Persians]]. Primarily a [[Semitic people|Semitic]] [[Christian]] medium of expression, Syriac had a fundamental cultural and literary influence on the development of [[Arabic]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Beeston|first=Alfred Felix Landon|title=Arabic literature to the end of the Umayyad period|year=1983|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-24015-4|page=497|url=http://books.google.nl/books?id=Y0QkhaK4kBUC&pg=PA497}}</ref> which largely replaced it towards the 14th century.<ref name=Angold391/> Syriac remains the [[liturgical language]] of the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], and Syriac Christianity in general, to this day.

Syriac is a Middle Aramaic language, and, as such, it is a language of the [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwestern branch]] of the [[Semitic languages|Semitic family]]. It is written in the [[Syriac alphabet]], a derivation of the [[Aramaic alphabet]].

==Geographic distribution==
[[File:Syriac Christianity.svg|thumb|right|alt=The distribution of the Syriac language in the Middle East and Asia|Although once a major language in the [[Fertile Crescent]] and [[Historical region of Bahrain|Bahrain]], Syriac is now limited to its place of origin, in ethnic [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] enclaves, towns and villages in the [[Nineveh plains]], [[Tur Abdin]], the [[Khabur River|Khabur]] plains, in and around the cities of [[Mosul]], [[Irbil]] and [[Kurkuk]], and around the Syriac-[[Aramean]] town of [[Ma'loula]]{{citation needed|23|02|2015|date=February 2015}}]]
[[File:Syriac Sertâ book script.jpg|thumb|250px|An 11th-century Syriac [[manuscript]].]]
Syriac was originally a 5th-century BC local Assyrian-[[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] influenced<ref>Khan 2008, pp. 6</ref> Aramaic dialect of Assyria in northern [[Mesopotamia]] that evolved under the influence of Assyrian Church of the East and Syriac Orthodox Church into its current form. Before Arabic became the dominant language, Syriac was a major language among Christian communities in the [[Middle East]], [[Central Asia]] and [[Kerala]], and remains so among the Assyrians and Syriac-Arameans to this day.
It has been found as far afield as [[Hadrians Wall]] in [[Ancient Britain]], with inscriptions written by Assyrian and Aramean soldiers of the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>http://www.theguardian.com/culture/charlottehigginsblog/2009/oct/13/hadrians-wall</ref>

==History==
[[File:Eesho Aramaic name of Jesus.jpg|thumb|''Isho'' or ''Eesho'', the [[Aramaic]] name of [[Jesus]]]]
The history of Syriac can be divided into three distinct periods:
* Old Aramaic (the language of Assyria/[[Athura]]/[[Assuristan]], and the [[Neo-Assyrian]] kingdoms of [[Assur]], [[Adiabene]], [[Osroene]] and [[Hatra]]).
* Middle Syriac/Middle Syriac Aramaic ({{lang|syr|ܟܬܒܢܝܐ}} ''{{transl|syr|Kṯāḇānāyā}}'', "Literary Syriac"), which is divided into:
** Eastern Middle Syriac/Eastern Middle Syriac Aramaic (the literary and ecclesiastical language of the ethnic [[Assyrian Christians]] of the Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Ancient Church of the East and Assyrian Pentecostal Church),
** Western Middle Syriac/Western Middle Syriac Aramaic (the literary and ecclesiastical language of the largely Syriac members of the Syriac Orthodox Church, [[Syriac Catholic Church]] and [[Maronite Church]]).
* "Modern Syriac"/"Modern Syriac Aramaic" is a term occasionally used to refer to the modern [[Eastern Aramaic]] languages (see e.g. Lipinski 2001:70<ref name=lipinski>Lipinski, Edward. 2001. Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar. P.70</ref>). Even if they can't be positively identified as the direct descendants of attested Middle Syriac, they must have developed from closely related dialects belonging to the same branch of Aramaic, and the varieties spoken in Christian communities have long co-existed with, and been influenced by, Middle Syriac as a liturgical and literary language. In this terminology, Modern Syriac is divided into:
** Modern Western Syriac Aramaic ([[Turoyo language|Turoyo]] and [[Mlahsô language|Mlahsô]]). Note however that these are sometimes excluded from the category of "Modern Syriac".<ref name=lipinski/>
** Modern Eastern Syriac Aramaic ([[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]], including [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] and so called [[Chaldean Neo-Aramaic]] (the dialects of the [[Assyrian people]]) - but the term usually is not used in reference to [[Neo-Mandaic]], another variety of Eastern Aramaic spoken by [[Mandaeans]]).

The name "Syriac", when used with no qualification, generally refers to one specific dialect of Middle Aramaic, but not to Old Aramaic nor to the various present-day Eastern and Central Neo-Aramaic languages that are descended from it or from close relatives. The modern varieties are, therefore, not discussed in this article.

== Origins ==
Syriac began as an unwritten spoken dialect of [[Imperial Aramaic]] in [[Assyria]]-[[northern Mesopotamia]], an [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]-influenced version of the Old Aramaic language which was introduced as the [[lingua franca]] of the [[Neo Assyrian Empire]] by [[Tiglath-Pileser III]] (745-727 BC). The first evidence of such dialects that emerge in Assyria, and begin to influence the written Imperial Aramaic from the 5th century BC. After the conquest of Assyria, southern Mesopotamia and [[Aramea]] (Syria) by [[Alexander the Great]], Syriac and other Aramaic dialects gradually lost their status as imperial languages but continued to flourish as lingua francas alongside [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]].

In 132 BC, the [[Neo-Assyrian]] kingdom of [[Osroene]] was founded in Edessa with Syriac as its official language. Many Syriac-speakers still look to Edessa as the cradle of their language.<ref>{{cite book|last=Drijvers|first=H. J. W.|title=Cults and beliefs at Edessa|year=1980|publisher=Brill Archive|isbn=978-90-04-06050-0|page=1|url=http://books.google.nl/books?id=69YUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1}}</ref>
There are about eighty extant early Syriac inscriptions, dated to the first three centuries AD (the earliest example of Syriac, rather than Imperial Aramaic, is in an inscription dated to AD 6, and the earliest parchment is a deed of sale dated to AD 243). All of these early examples of the language are non-Christian. As an official language, Syriac was given a relatively coherent form, style and grammar that is lacking in other Old Eastern Aramaic dialects.

== Literary Syriac ==
{{Further|Syriac literature}}
[[File:6thBeatitude.svg|thumb|400px|The sixth [[Beatitudes|beatitude]] ([[Matthew 5:8]]) from an East Syriac Peshitta. {{Script/Mdnh|ܛܘܼܒܲܝܗܘܿܢ ܠܐܲܝܠܹܝܢ ܕܲܕ݂ܟܹܝܢ ܒܠܸܒ̇ܗܘܿܢ܄ ܕܗܸܢ݂ܘܿܢ ܢܸܚܙܘܿܢ ܠܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ܂}} ''{{transl|syr|Ṭūḇayhōn l-ʾaylên da-ḏḵên b-lebbhōn: d-hennōn neḥzōn l-ʾalāhā}}.'' 'Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God.']]
In the 3rd century, churches in Edessa began to use Syriac as the language of worship. There is evidence that the adoption of Syriac, the language of the Assyrian people, was to effect mission. Much literary effort was put into the production of an authoritative translation of the Bible into Syriac, the [[Peshitta]] ({{lang|syr|ܦܫܝܛܬܐ}} ''{{transl|syr|Pšīṭtā}}''). At the same time, [[Ephrem the Syrian]] was producing the most treasured collection of poetry and theology in the Syriac language.

In 489, many Syriac-speaking Christians living in the eastern reaches of the Roman Empire fled to the Sassanid Empire to escape persecution and growing animosity with Greek-speaking Christians.{{Citation needed|date=January 2009}} The Christological differences with the Assyrian Church of the East led to the bitter [[Nestorian schism]] in the Syriac-speaking world. As a result, Syriac developed distinctive western and eastern varieties. Although remaining a single language with a high level of comprehension between the varieties, the two employ distinctive variations in pronunciation and writing system, and, to a lesser degree, in vocabulary.

Western Syriac is the official language of the [[West Syrian rite]], practised by the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syrian Catholic Church, the Maronite Church, the [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]], the [[Malabar Independent Syrian Church]], the [[Mar Thoma Church]] and the [[Syro-Malankara Catholic Church]].

Eastern Syriac is the liturgical language of the [[East Syrian rite]], practised in modern times by the ethnic Assyrian followers of the Assyrian Church of the East, the Assyrian Pentecostal Church, the Ancient Church of the East, the Assyrian-Chaldean Catholic Church, as well as the [[Syro-Malabar Church]] in India.

Syriac literature is by far the most prodigious of the various [[Aramaic language]]s. Its corpus covers poetry, prose, theology, liturgy, hymnody, history, philosophy, science, medicine and natural history. Much of this wealth remains unavailable in critical editions or modern translation.

From the 7th century onwards, Syriac gradually gave way to [[Arabic language|Arabic]] as the spoken language of much of the region, excepting northern Iraq. The [[Mongol]] invasions of the 13th century, and the religiously motivated massacres of [[Assyrian Christians]] by [[Tamurlane]] further contributed to the rapid decline of the language. In many places outside of northern Mesopotamia (the [[Assyrian homeland]]), even in liturgy, it was replaced by Arabic.

== Current status ==
[[File:Tabelayeke bi suryanî Dêra Zehferanê 2008.jpg|thumb|A warning sign: ''Please! Let's be quiet!''', in Syriac and Turkish languages.]]
Revivals of literal Syriac in recent times have led to some success with the creation of newspapers in written Syriac ({{lang|syr|ܟܬܒܢܝܐ}} ''{{transl|syr|Kṯāḇānāyā}}''), similar to the Arabic ''[[Modern Standard Arabic|Fuṣḥā]]'' has been used since the early decades of the 20th century. Modern literary Syriac has also been used not only in religious literature but also in secular genres often with [[Assyrian nationalism|nationalistic]] themes.<ref name=kthob>{{cite web|last=Kiraz|first=George|authorlink=George Kiraz|title=Kthobonoyo Syriac: Some Observations and Remarks|url=http://syrcom.cua.edu/Hugoye/Vol10No2/HV10N2Kiraz.html|work=HUGOYE: JOURNAL OF SYRIAC STUDIES|publisher=Beth Mardutho: The Syriac Institute and Institute of Christian Oriental Research at The Catholic University of America|accessdate=30 September 2011}}</ref>

Syriac has been recognised as an official [[minority language]] in Iraq.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Anbori|first=Abbas|title=The Comprehensive Policy to Manage the Ethnic Languages in Iraq|pages=4–5|url=http://www.turkmen.nl/1A_Others/minority-Iraq.pdf}}</ref> It is also taught in some public schools in [[Iraq]], [[Israel]], [[Sweden]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Dorit|first=Shilo|title=The Ben Yehudas of Aramaic|url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/the-ben-yehudas-of-aramaic-1.283777|accessdate=30 September 2011|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|date=1 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Syriac...a language struggling to survive|url=http://admin.iraqupdates.net/p_articles.php/article/25518|accessdate=30 September 2011|newspaper=Voices of Iraq|date=28 December 2007}}</ref> and [[Kerala]]/India.

In 2014, an Assyrian [[preschool|nursery school]] could finally be opened in [[Yeşilköy]]/[[Istanbul]]<ref>[http://www.aina.org/news/20140910111521.htm Assyrian School Welcomes Students in Istanbul, Marking a New Beginning]</ref> after waging a lawsuit against the [[Ministry of National Education (Turkey)|Ministry of National Education]] which had denied a permission, but was required to respect non-Muslim minority rights as specified in the [[Treaty of Lausanne]].<ref>[http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/tr/culture/2012/12/turkey-denies-assyrian-request-to-open-kindergarten.html Turkey Denies Request to Open Assyrian-Language Kindergarten]</ref>

Among the [[Syriac churches of Kerala]], [[Malayalam]] often replaces Syriac. Literary Syriac is often used as a spoken language by clerics who do not speak the vernacular dialects.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}

==Grammar==
Many Syriac words, like those in other [[Semitic languages]], are built out of [[triliteral]] roots, collations of three Syriac consonants with variable vowel (and some consonant) sets as a "glue". For example, the root {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠ}}, ''{{transl|syc|ŠQL}}'', has the basic meaning of ''taking'', and the following are some words that can be formed from this root:
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠ}} – ''{{transl|syc|šqal}}'': "he has taken"
* {{lang|syc|ܢܫܩܘܠ}} – ''{{transl|syc|nešqōl}}'': "he will take"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠ}} – ''{{transl|syc|šāqel}}'': "he takes, he is taking"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠ}} – ''{{transl|syc|šaqqel}}'': "he has lifted/raised"
* {{lang|syc|ܐܫܩܠ}} – ''{{transl|syc|ʾašqel}}'': "he has set out"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠܐ}} – ''{{transl|syc|šqālā}}'': "a taking, burden, recension, portion or syllable"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܐ}} – ''{{transl|syc|šeqlē}}'': "takings, profits, taxes"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܩܠܘܬܐ}} – ''{{transl|syc|šaqlūṯā}}'': "a beast of burden"
* {{lang|syc|ܫܘܩܠܐ}} – ''{{transl|syc|šūqqālā}}'': "arrogance"

=== Nouns ===
Most Syriac [[noun]]s are built from triliteral roots. Nouns carry [[grammatical gender]] (masculine or feminine), they can be either singular or plural in number (a very few can be dual) and can exist in one of three grammatical states. These states should not be confused with [[grammatical case]]s in other languages.

* The absolute state is the basic form of the noun – {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܝܢ}}, ''{{transl|syc|šeqlīn}}'', "taxes".
* The emphatic state usually represents a definite noun – {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܐ}}, ''{{transl|syc|šeqlē}}'', "the taxes".
* The construct state marks a noun in relationship to another noun – {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܝ}}, ''{{transl|syc|šeqlay}}'', "taxes of...".

However, very quickly in the development of Classical Syriac, the emphatic state became the ordinary form of the noun, and the absolute and construct states were relegated to certain stock phrases (for example, {{lang|syc|ܒܪ ܐܢܫܐ/ܒܪܢܫܐ}}, ''{{transl|syc|bar nāšā}}'', "man, person", literally "son of man").

In Old and early Classical Syriac, most [[genitive case|genitive]] noun relationships are built using the construct state, but contrary to the genitive case, it is the head-noun which is marked by the construct state. Thus, {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܝ ܡܠܟܘܬܐ}}, ''{{transl|syc|šeqlay malkūṯā}}'', means "the taxes of the kingdom". Quickly, the construct relationship was abandoned and replaced by the use of the relative particle {{lang|syc|ܕ}}, ''{{transl|syc|d-, da-}}''. Thus, the same [[noun phrase]] becomes {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܐ ܕܡܠܟܘܬܐ}}, ''{{unicode|šeqlē d-malkūṯā}}'', where both nouns are in the emphatic state. Very closely related nouns can be drawn into a closer grammatical relationship by the addition of a pronominal suffix. Thus, the phrase can be written as {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܝܗ ܕܡܠܟܘܬܐ}}, ''{{transl|syc|šeqlêh d-malkūṯā}}''. In this case, both nouns continue to be in the emphatic state, but the first has the suffix that makes it literally read "her taxes" ("kingdom" is feminine), and thus is "her taxes, [those] of the kingdom".

[[Adjective]]s always agree in gender and number with the nouns they modify. Adjectives are in the absolute state if they are [[Predicative adjective|predicative]], but agree with the state of their noun if [[Attributive adjective|attributive]]. Thus, {{lang|syc|ܒܝܫܝ̈ܢ ܫܩ̈ܠܐ}}, ''{{transl|syc|bīšīn šeqlē}}'', means "the taxes are evil", whereas {{lang|syc|ܫܩ̈ܠܐ ܒܝ̈ܫܐ}}, ''{{transl|syc|šeqlē ḇīšē}}'', means "evil taxes".

=== Verbs ===
Most Syriac verbs are built on triliteral roots as well. Finite verbs carry [[grammatical person|person]], gender (except in the first person) and number, as well as [[grammatical tense|tense]] and [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]. The non-finite verb forms are the [[infinitive]] and the [[active voice|active]] and [[passive voice|passive]] [[participle]]s.

Syriac has only two true [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] tenses: perfect and imperfect. Whereas these tenses were originally [[grammatical aspect|aspectual]] in Aramaic, they have become a truly temporal [[past tense|past]] and [[future tense|future]] tenses respectively. The [[present tense]] is usually marked with the [[participle]] followed by the [[subject (grammar)|subject]] [[pronoun]]. However, such pronouns are usually omitted in the case of the third person. This use of the participle to mark the present tense is the most common of a number of ''compound'' tenses that can be used to express varying senses of tense and aspect.

Syriac also employs verb conjugations such as are present in other Semitic languages. These are regular modifications of the verb's root to express other changes in meaning. The first conjugation is the ground state, or ''{{transl|syc|Pəʿal}}'' (this name models the shape of the root). form of the verb, which carries the usual meaning of the word. The next is the intensive state, or ''{{transl|syc|Paʿʿel}}'', form of the verb, which usually carries an [[intensive|intensified]] meaning. The third is the extensive state, or ''{{transl|syc|ʾAp̄ʿel}}'', form of the verb, which is often [[causative]] in meaning. Each of these conjugations has its parallel [[passive voice|passive]] conjugation: the ''{{transl|syc|ʾEṯpəʿel}}'', ''{{transl|syc|ʾEṯpaʿʿal}}'' and ''{{transl|syc|ʾEttap̄ʿal}}'' respectively. To these six cardinal conjugations are added a few irregular forms, like the ''{{transl|syc|Šap̄ʿel}}'' and ''{{transl|syc|ʾEštap̄ʿal}}'', which generally have an extensive meaning.

==Phonology==
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2009}}
{{listen|filename=aboun.ogg|title=''{{unicode|ʾAḇôn d-ḇa-šmayyā}}''|description= The [[Lord's Prayer]], ''{{transl|syr|ʾAḇōn d-ḇa-šmayyā}}'', sung in Syriac using the western dialect pronunciation}}
Phonologically, like the other Northwest Semitic languages, Syriac has 22 consonants and 3 vowels. The consonantal phonemes are:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" class="wikitable"
|-
|transliteration || ''{{transl|syc|[[Aleph (letter)|ʾ]]}}'' || ''{{transl|syc|[[Beth (letter)|b]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Gimel (letter)|g]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Daleth|d]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[He (letter)|h]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Waw (letter)|w]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Zayin|z]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Heth (letter)|ḥ]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Teth|ṭ]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Yodh|y]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Kaph|k]]}}'' || ''{{transl|syc|[[Lamedh|l]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Mem|m]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Nun (letter)|n]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Samekh|s]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Ayin|ʿ]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Pe (letter)|p]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Tsade|ṣ]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Qoph|q]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Resh|r]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Shin (letter)|š]]}}''||''{{transl|syc|[[Taw (letter)|t]]}}''
|-
|letter
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܐ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܒ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܓ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܕ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܗ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܘ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܙ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܚ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܛ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܝ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܟ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܠ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܡ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܢ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܣ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܥ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܦ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܨ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܩ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܪ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܫ}}
| style="height:40px; font-size:150%; vertical-align:top;"| {{lang|syc|ܬ}}
|-
|pronunciation
|{{IPA|[ʔ]}}
|{{IPA|[b], [v]}}
|{{IPA|[ɡ], [ɣ]}}
|{{IPA|[d], [ð]}}
|{{IPA|[h]}}
|{{IPA|[w]}}
|{{IPA|[z]}}
|{{IPA|[ħ]}}
|{{IPA|[tˤ]}}
|{{IPA|[j]}}
|{{IPA|[k], [x]}}
|{{IPA|[l]}}
|{{IPA|[m]}}
|{{IPA|[n]}}
|{{IPA|[s]}}
|{{IPA|[ʕ]}}
|{{IPA|[p], [f]}}
|{{IPA|[sˤ]}}
|{{IPA|[q]}}
|{{IPA|[r]}}
|{{IPA|[ʃ]}}
|{{IPA|[t], [θ]}}
|}

Phonetically, there is some variation in the pronunciation of Syriac in its various forms. The various Modern Eastern Aramaic vernaculars have quite different pronunciations, and these sometimes influence how the classical language is pronounced, for example, in public prayer. Classical Syriac has two major streams of pronunciation: western and eastern.

=== Consonants ===
Syriac shares with Aramaic a set of lightly contrasted [[stop consonant|plosive]]/[[fricative consonant|fricative]] pairs. In different variations of a certain lexical root, a root consonant might exist in plosive form in one variation and fricative form in another. In the Syriac alphabet, a single letter is used for each pair. Sometimes a dot is placed above the letter (''{{unicode|qūššāyā}}'', or ''strengthening''; equivalent to a [[dagesh]] in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) to mark that the plosive pronunciation is required, and a dot is placed below the letter (''{{unicode|rūkkāḵā}}'', or ''softening'') to mark that the fricative pronunciation is required. The pairs are:
* [[voiced consonant|Voiced]] [[labial consonant|labial]] pair – {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/v/}}
* Voiced [[velar consonant|velar]] pair – {{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/ɣ/}}
* Voiced [[dental consonant|dental]] pair – {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/ð/}}
* [[voiceless consonant|Voiceless]] labial pair – {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/f/}}
* Voiceless velar pair – {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/x/}}
* Voiceless dental pair – {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/θ/}}

As with other Semitic languages, Syriac has a set of five ''[[emphatic consonant]]s''. These are consonants that are articulated or released in the [[human pharynx|pharynx]] or slightly higher. The set consists of:
* [[Voiceless pharyngeal fricative]] – {{IPA|/ħ/}}
* [[Pharyngealisation|Pharyngealized]] [[voiceless dental plosive]] – {{IPA|/tˤ/}}
* [[Voiced pharyngeal fricative]] – {{IPA|/ʕ/}}
* Pharyngealized [[voiceless alveolar fricative]] – {{IPA|/sˤ/}}
* [[Voiceless uvular plosive]] – {{IPA|/q/}}

Syriac also has a rich array of [[sibilant consonant]]s:
* [[Voiced alveolar fricative]] – {{IPA|/z/}}
* [[Voiceless alveolar fricative]] – {{IPA|/s/}}
* [[Pharyngealisation|Pharyngealized]] [[voiceless alveolar fricative]] – {{IPA|/sˤ/}}
* [[Voiceless postalveolar fricative]] – {{IPA|/ʃ/}}

{|class="wikitable"
|+ Table of Syriac consonants
|-
! rowspan=2|
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! colspan=3|[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan=3|[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|[[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyn- geal]]
! rowspan=2 colspan=2|[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan=2|plain || colspan=2|[[pharyngealization|emphatic]] || colspan=2|plain
|- align=center
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|m}}
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|n}}
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
|- align=center
! [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|p}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|b}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|t}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|d}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|tˤ}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|k}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|ɡ}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|q}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
| colspan=2|
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|ʔ}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
|- align=center
! [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|f}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|v}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|θ}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|ð}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|sˤ}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|s}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|z}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|ʃ}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|x}} || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|ɣ}}
| colspan=2|
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|ħ}} || rowspan=2 style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|ʕ}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | {{IPA|h}} || style="border-left: 0;" |
|- align=center
! [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|w}}
| colspan=6| {{IPA|l}}
| style="border-right: 0;" | || style="border-left: 0;" | {{IPA|j}}
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
|- align=center
! [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| colspan=2|
| colspan=6| {{IPA|r}}
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
| colspan=2|
|}

=== Vowels ===
As with most Semitic languages, the vowels of Syriac are mostly subordinated to consonants. Especially in the presence of an emphatic consonant, vowels tend to become mid-centralised.

Classical Syriac had the following set of distinguishable vowels:
* [[Close front unrounded vowel]] – {{IPA|/i/}}
* [[Close-mid front unrounded vowel]] – {{IPA|/e/}}
* [[Open-mid front unrounded vowel]] – {{IPA|/ɛ/}}
* [[Open front unrounded vowel]] – {{IPA|/a/}}
* [[Open back unrounded vowel]] – {{IPA|/ɑ/}}
* [[Close-mid back rounded vowel]] – {{IPA|/o/}}
* [[Close back rounded vowel]] – {{IPA|/u/}}

In the western dialect, {{IPA|/ɑ/}} has become {{IPA|/o/}}, and the original {{IPA|/o/}} has merged with {{IPA|/u/}}. In eastern dialects there is more fluidity in the pronunciation of [[front vowel]]s, with some speakers distinguishing five qualities of such vowels, and others only distinguishing three. Vowel length is generally not important: [[close vowel]]s tend to be longer than [[open vowel]]s.

The open vowels form [[diphthong]]s with the [[approximant consonant|approximants]] {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}. In almost all dialects, the full sets of possible diphthongs collapses into two or three actual pronunciations:
* {{IPA|/ɑj/}} usually becomes {{IPA|/aj/}}, but the western dialect has {{IPA|/oj/}}
* {{IPA|/aj/}}, further, sometimes [[monophthong]]ized to {{IPA|/e/}}
* {{IPA|/aw/}} usually becomes {{IPA|/ɑw/}}
* {{IPA|/ɑw/}}, further, sometimes monophthongized to {{IPA|/o/}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Assyrians|Syriac Christianity|Languages}}
*[[Syriac studies]]
*[[Syriac music]]{{disambiguation needed|date=August 2012}}
*[[Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium]]
*[[Suriyani Malayalam|Syriac Malayalam]]
*[[Syrian Arabic]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*Journal of Sacred Literature, New Series [Series 4] vol. 2 (1863) pp. 75–87, [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/oriental/jsl_syriac_intro.htm ''The Syriac Language and Literature'']
*Beyer, Klaus (1986). ''The Aramaic language: its distribution and subdivisions''. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-53573-2.
*[[Sebastian Brock|Brock, Sebastian]] (2006). ''An Introduction to Syriac Studies''. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. ISBN 1-59333-349-8.
*[[Carl Brockelmann|Brockelmann, Carl]] (1895). ''Lexicon Syriacum''. Berlin: Reuther & Reichard; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
*Healey, John F (1980). ''First studies in Syriac''. University of Birmingham/Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 0-7044-0390-0.
*Maclean, Arthur John (2003). ''Grammar of the dialects of vernacular Syriac: as spoken by the Eastern Syrians of Kurdistan, north-west Persia, and the Plain of Mosul: with notices of the vernacular of the Jews of Azerbaijan and of Zakhu near Mosul''. Gorgias Press. ISBN 1-59333-018-9.
*[[Theodor Nöldeke|Nöldeke, Theodor]] and Julius Euting (1880) ''Kurzgefasste syrische Grammatik''. Leipzig: T.O. Weigel. [translated to English as ''Compendious Syriac Grammar'', by James A. Crichton. London: Williams & Norgate 1904. 2003 edition: ISBN 1-57506-050-7].
* {{Citation|last=Angold|first=Michael|editor-last=O’Mahony|editor-first=Anthony|title=Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 5, Eastern Christianity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vBy7CTYVBeMC|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521811132}}.
*Payne Smith, Jessie (Ed.) (1903). ''A compendious Syriac dictionary founded upon the Thesaurus Syriacus of [[Robert Payne Smith]]''. Oxford University Press, reprinted in 1998 by Eisenbrauns. ISBN 1-57506-032-9.
*Robinson, Theodore Henry (1915). ''Paradigms and exercises in Syriac grammar''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926129-6.
* Rudder, Joshua. ''Learn to Write Aramaic: A Step-by-Step Approach to the Historical & Modern Scripts''. n.p.: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2011. 220 pp. ISBN 978-1461021421 Includes the Estrangela (pp. 59–113), Madnhaya (pp. 191–206), and the Western Serto (pp. 173–190) scripts.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Syriac language}}
{{InterWiki|code=arc}}
* [http://scriptsource.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=script_detail&key=Syrc Syriac at ScriptSource.com]
* [http://cal.huc.edu/ The Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon]

{{Semitic languages|Northwest}}
{{Syriac Christianity}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Syriac Language}}
[[Category:Aramaic languages]]
[[Category:Classical languages]]
[[Category:Endangered Afro-Asiatic languages]]
[[Category:Fertile Crescent]]
[[Category:Languages of Iraq]]
[[Category:Languages of Bahrain]]
[[Category:Languages of Lebanon]]
[[Category:Languages of Syria]]
[[Category:Liturgical languages]]
[[Category:Ritual languages]]
[[Category:Semitic languages]]
[[Category:World Digital Library related]]
[[Category:Syriac languages]]
[[Category:Syriac language| ]]