Mesopotamia - Revision history

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	A further distinction is usually made between Northern or [[Upper Mesopotamia]] and Southern or Lower Mesopotamia.<ref name=miqueletal>{{citation \|last1=Miquel \|first1=A. \|last2=Brice \|first2=W.C. \|last3=Sourdel \|first3=D. \|last4=Aubin \|first4=J. \|last5=Holt \|first5=P.M. \|last6=Kelidar \|first6=A. \|last7=Blanc \|first7=H. \|last8=MacKenzie \|first8=D.N. \|last9=Pellat \|first9=Ch. \|editor1-first=P. \|editor1-last=Bearman \|editor2-first=Th. \|editor2-last=Bianquis \|editor3-first=C.E. \|editor3-last=Bosworth \|editor4-first=E. \|editor4-last=van Donzel \|editor5-first=W.P. \|editor5-last=Heinrichs \|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth \|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition \|year=2011 \|publisher=Brill Online \|location=Leiden \|chapter=ʿIrāḳ \|oclc=624382576 }}</ref> Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the ''Jazira'', is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to [[Baghdad]].<ref name=canard/> Lower Mesopotamia consists of southern Iraq, [[Kuwait]] and parts of western Iran.<ref>{{Citation\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nAemO6HmOgYC&pg=PA2 \|title=Who Were The Babylonians?\|work= Bill T. Arnold\|year=2004\|pages=2\|postscript=}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ix4X-0QykDAC&pg=PT108&dq \|title=From Adam to Noah-The Numbers Game: Why the Genealogy Puzzles of Genesis 5\|work= Leonard Timmons\|year=2012\|pages=\|postscript=}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=K-4OtwAACAAJ&d \|title=Southern Mesopotamia During the Bronze Age\|work= Lisa E. Gross\|year=2003\|pages=\|postscript=}}</ref> In modern academic usage, the term Mesopotamia often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the [[Muslim conquests]], with names like Syria, Jazirah, and Iraq being used to describe the region after that date.<ref name=fosterpolingerfoster/><ref name=bahrani>{{citation \|last1=Bahrani \|first1=Z. \|editor1-last=Meskell \|editor1-first=L. \|title=Archaeology under fire: Nationalism, politics and heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East \|year=1998 \|publisher=Routledge \|location=London \|isbn=978-0-415-19655-0 \|pages=159–174 \|chapter=Conjuring Mesopotamia: imaginative geography a world past }}</ref> It has been argued that these later euphemisms are [[Eurocentrism\|Eurocentric]] terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.<ref name=bahrani/><ref>Scheffler, Thomas; 2003. “ 'Fertile crescent', 'Orient', 'Middle East': the changing mental maps of Southeast Asia,” ''European Review of History'' 10/2: 253–272.</ref>		A further distinction is usually made between Northern or [[Upper Mesopotamia]] and Southern or Lower Mesopotamia.<ref name=miqueletal>{{citation \|last1=Miquel \|first1=A. \|last2=Brice \|first2=W.C. \|last3=Sourdel \|first3=D. \|last4=Aubin \|first4=J. \|last5=Holt \|first5=P.M. \|last6=Kelidar \|first6=A. \|last7=Blanc \|first7=H. \|last8=MacKenzie \|first8=D.N. \|last9=Pellat \|first9=Ch. \|editor1-first=P. \|editor1-last=Bearman \|editor2-first=Th. \|editor2-last=Bianquis \|editor3-first=C.E. \|editor3-last=Bosworth \|editor4-first=E. \|editor4-last=van Donzel \|editor5-first=W.P. \|editor5-last=Heinrichs \|editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth \|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition \|year=2011 \|publisher=Brill Online \|location=Leiden \|chapter=ʿIrāḳ \|oclc=624382576 }}</ref> Upper Mesopotamia, also known as the ''Jazira'', is the area between the Euphrates and the Tigris from their sources down to [[Baghdad]].<ref name=canard/> Lower Mesopotamia consists of southern Iraq, [[Kuwait]] and parts of western Iran.<ref>{{Citation\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nAemO6HmOgYC&pg=PA2 \|title=Who Were The Babylonians?\|work= Bill T. Arnold\|year=2004\|pages=2\|postscript=}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Ix4X-0QykDAC&pg=PT108&dq \|title=From Adam to Noah-The Numbers Game: Why the Genealogy Puzzles of Genesis 5\|work= Leonard Timmons\|year=2012\|pages=\|postscript=}}</ref><ref>{{Citation\|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=K-4OtwAACAAJ&d \|title=Southern Mesopotamia During the Bronze Age\|work= Lisa E. Gross\|year=2003\|pages=\|postscript=}}</ref> In modern academic usage, the term Mesopotamia often also has a chronological connotation. It is usually used to designate the area until the [[Muslim conquests]], with names like Syria, Jazirah, and Iraq being used to describe the region after that date.<ref name=fosterpolingerfoster/><ref name=bahrani>{{citation \|last1=Bahrani \|first1=Z. \|editor1-last=Meskell \|editor1-first=L. \|title=Archaeology under fire: Nationalism, politics and heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East \|year=1998 \|publisher=Routledge \|location=London \|isbn=978-0-415-19655-0 \|pages=159–174 \|chapter=Conjuring Mesopotamia: imaginative geography a world past }}</ref> It has been argued that these later euphemisms are [[Eurocentrism\|Eurocentric]] terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th-century Western encroachments.<ref name=bahrani/><ref>Scheffler, Thomas; 2003. “ 'Fertile crescent', 'Orient', 'Middle East': the changing mental maps of Southeast Asia,” ''European Review of History'' 10/2: 253–272.</ref>
		+

	==Geography==		==Geography==

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 Widely considered to be the [[cradle of civilization]] by the [[Western world]], [[Bronze Age]] Mesopotamia included [[Sumer]] and the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]], [[Babylonia]]n, and [[Assyria]]n empires, all native to the territory of modern-day Iraq. In the [[Iron Age]], it was controlled by the  [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]s. The indigenous Chaldeans of Sumer, Akkad and Babylon dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. It fell to [[Alexander the Great]] in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek [[Seleucid Empire]].
 Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the [[Parthian Empire]]. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and Parthians, with parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD 226, it fell to the Sassanid Persians and remained under Persian rule until the 7th century [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] of the [[Sasanian Empire]]. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BCE and 3rd century CE, including [[Adiabene]], [[Osroene]], and [[Hatra]].
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 [[File:Metal production in Ancient Middle East.svg|thumb|Mining areas of the ancient [[West Asia]]. Boxes colors: [[arsenic]] is in brown, [[copper]] in red, [[tin]] in grey, iron in reddish brown, gold in yellow, silver in white and [[lead]] in black. Yellow area stands for [[arsenic bronze]], while grey area stands for tin [[bronze]].]]
-Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC.<ref name="Cengage Learning, 1 Jan 2010 ">{{Citation | url =http://books.google.com/?id=jvsVSqhw-FAC&pg=PA29&dq=mesopotamian+agriculture#v=onepage&q=mesopotamian%20agriculture&f=false|title= The Earth and Its Peoples:  A Global History |author=Richard Bulliet, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, David Northup|publisher=Cengage Learning, 1 Jan 2010 | accessdate =2012-05-30 | isbn =0538744383 | date =2010-01-01}}</ref> Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale [[economy|system of loans and credit]], but the Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial [[banking]]. It was comparable in some ways to modern [[post-Keynesian economics]], but with a more "anything goes" approach.<ref name=Sheila>Sheila C. Dow (2005), "Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply", ''Journal of Post Keynesian Economics'' '''27''' (3), p. 385-391.</ref>
+Irrigated agriculture spread southwards from the Zagros foothills with the Samara and Hadji Muhammed culture, from about 5,000 BC.<ref name="Cengage Learning, 1 Jan 2010 ">{{Citation | url =http://books.google.com/?id=jvsVSqhw-FAC&pg=PA29&dq=mesopotamian+agriculture#v=onepage&q=mesopotamian%20agriculture&f=false|title= The Earth and Its Peoples:  A Global History |author=Richard Bulliet, Pamela Kyle Crossley, Daniel Headrick, Steven Hirsch, Lyman Johnson, David Northup|publisher=Cengage Learning, 1 Jan 2010 | accessdate =2012-05-30 | isbn =0538744383 | date =2010-01-01}}</ref> Sumerian temples functioned as banks and developed the first large-scale [[economy|system of loans and credit]], but the Babylonians developed the earliest system of commercial [[banking]]. It was comparable in some ways to modern [[post-Keynesian economics]], but with a more "anything goes" approach.<ref name=Sheila> Sheila C. Dow (2005), "Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply", ''Journal of Post Keynesian Economics'' '''27''' (3), p. 385-391.</ref>
 In the early period down to [[Ur III]] temples owned up to one third of the available land, declining over time as royal and other private holdings increased in frequency.  The word [[ENSI|Ensi]] was used to describe the official who organized the work of all facets of temple agriculture. [[Villein]]s are known to have worked most frequently within agriculture, especially in the grounds of temples or palaces.<ref name=" H. W. F. Saggs">{{Citation | url =http://books.google.com/?id=BPdLxEyHci0C&pg=PA58&lpg=PA58&dq=agricultural+practice+in+Babylonia#v=onepage&q=agricultural%20practice%20in%20Babylonia&f=false|author=H. W. F. Saggs - Professor Emeritus of Semitic Languages at University College, Cardiff| title = Babylonians | publisher = University of California Press, 1 Jun 2000| accessdate =29 May 2012 | isbn =9780520202221 | year =2000 }} ISBN 0520202228</ref>

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 '''Mesopotamia''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|m|ɛ|s|ə|p|ə|ˈ|t|eɪ|m|i|ə}}, from the {{lang-grc|Μεσοποταμία}} "[land] between rivers"; {{lang-ar|بلاد الرافدين}} ''bilād ar-rāfidayn''; {{lang-syr|ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪܝܢ}} ''[[Beth Nahrain]]'' "land of rivers") is a name for the area of the [[Tigris–Euphrates river system]], corresponding to modern-day [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]], the northeastern section of [[Syria]] and to a much lesser extent southeastern [[Turkey]] and smaller parts of southwestern [[Iran]].
-Widely considered to be the [[cradle of civilization]] by the [[Western world]], [[Bronze Age]] Mesopotamia included [[Sumer]] and the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]], [[Babylonia]]n, and [[Assyria]]n empires, all native to the territory of modern-day Iraq. In the [[Iron Age]], it was controlled by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] and [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]s. The indigenous Sumerians and Akkadians (including Assyrians and Babylonians) dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. It fell to [[Alexander the Great]] in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek [[Seleucid Empire]].
+Widely considered to be the [[cradle of civilization]] by the [[Western world]], [[Bronze Age]] Mesopotamia included [[Sumer]] and the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]], [[Babylonia]]n, and [[Assyria]]n empires, all native to the territory of modern-day Iraq. In the [[Iron Age]], it was controlled by the  [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]s. The indigenous Chaldeans of Sumer, Akkad and Babylon dominated Mesopotamia from the beginning of written history (c. 3100 BC) to the fall of Babylon in 539 BC, when it was conquered by the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. It fell to [[Alexander the Great]] in 332 BC, and after his death, it became part of the Greek [[Seleucid Empire]].
 Around 150 BC, Mesopotamia was under the control of the [[Parthian Empire]]. Mesopotamia became a battleground between the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and Parthians, with parts of Mesopotamia coming under ephemeral Roman control. In AD 226, it fell to the Sassanid Persians and remained under Persian rule until the 7th century [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] of the [[Sasanian Empire]]. A number of primarily neo-Assyrian and Christian native Mesopotamian states existed between the 1st century BCE and 3rd century CE, including [[Adiabene]], [[Osroene]], and [[Hatra]].

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